S2i Research Results

Why Sense of Self Matters

Bryan Hedrick, PhD

            Transformational leadership requires transformed individuals to be successful. Actions are important, but authentic transformational leadership starts with changing a leader’s character, or sense of self, by strengthening and solidifying their upward, inward, and outward selves. Leaders who are stable in their own core identity are more capable of applying the principles of transformational leadership; leaders without stable core identities tend to react more unpredictably to challenges, often delving into dark or toxic leadership territory.

            Transformational leadership is at the heart of the Air Force leadership model (Arenas et al., 2017). Additionally, toxic leadership is not new to the Air Force. Rosa (2024) highlights the challenges of delineating toxic leadership definitions within the Air Force to combat the growing challenges. Further, leaders instilling trust in their organizations is paramount to leading within the “Grey Zone” of complex and ambiguous operations. However, the confidence necessary for trust by followers is indicative of “a belief that someone is reliable and imbues a deeper trust in their character” (Hinck et al., 2023). Erratic leadership stemming from an unstable sense of self degrades trust and leads to the toxic traits the Air Force attempts to diminish in its ranks.

            Mental health continues to challenge Air Force leaders, with studies indicating anxiety accounting for 19.5% and depression accounting for 17.4% of all mental health issues within the Armed Forces between 2019 and 2023 (Health.mil, 2024). While some of the increase in mental health issues can be attributed to increased awareness and reduced stigma, addressing the ballooning cost of care, including hospital bed space, insurance costs, productivity, and most importantly, the well-being of our Service Members is a critical leadership concern moving into the future.

            Sense of self addresses both toxic leadership and mental health challenges. The research below demonstrates the reliability and validity of the Stability of Self Inventory (S2i) and its potential application in addressing both issues. Additionally, a strong sense of self supports the ethical application of air power, which is crucial with the rise of artificial intelligence in training and operations. As the Air College seeks to increase gamification via AI into its leadership development courses, integrating principles to enhance core identity stability are paramount to ensuring lethality and survivability are not sought at the expense of ethical character and integrity (Ebensberger, 2024). The bottom line is that the stability of the core self is essential to transforming individuals.

Methodology

            The data in this paper were derived from three studies overseen by the University of the Cumberlands Institutional Review Board and collected via SurveyMonkey for data security. The primary emphasis of each study was to confirm the validity and reliability of the Stability of Self Inventory (S2i) in two distinct populations and to determine relationships between Sense of Self and other performance variables. The S2i was developed to measure an individual’s Sense of Self from a stability perspective. The the instrument’s subscales—sense of core values (CV), sense of meaning/purpose (MP), sense of connection (CN), sense of awareness (AW), sense of openness (OP), sense of agency (AG), and sense of grit (GR)—provide individuals insight into their current stability of self and actionable steps to improve their overall human performance. Each subscale is individually scored and then can be combined for an overall Sense of Self score. The following findings reflect the total Sense of Self score.

            Study one sought to confirm the S2i’s validity and reliability in executive coaches from the International Coaching Federation (N = 276). Study one also sought to determine the discriminant and convergent validity. Discriminate validity was determined using Average Variance Extracted, which was greater than the correlation between individual factors when squared. Convergent validity was obtained through correlations between the S2i’s factors and similar instruments. In contrast, studies two and three confirmed the instrument’s fit metrics within a population of leaders (individuals within supervisory roles) (N = 203; N = 127). Study two explored the associations between the S2i and depression, anxiety, hardiness, resilience and emotional intelligence. Study three examined the S2i’s relationship with motivation, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and job performance.

Research shows that our inward, outward, and upward selves are all connected in shaping our overall sense of self. The S2i framework helps people better understand this connection by focusing on three dimensions:

Upward Self: Reflects your core values/beliefs and sense of meaning and purpose, answering the question, “What impact am I here to make?” For example, a nurse might find meaning and purpose in helping others heal and live better lives, living out their core values of helping others.

Inward Self: Focuses on self-awareness and openness to learning, addressing the question, “Who am I becoming?” For example, an athlete might reach out to a coach for ways to improve their performance, demonstrating an openness to learn new skills.

Outward Self: Examines your sense of agency and grit, answering, “How do I engage with the world?” For example, though a veteran’s job search has been challenging, their grit and knowing they can impact their world push them to strive harder towards their goal.

Each of the three dimensions also influences the others, working together to provide a clear picture of how stable and balanced your sense of self is to navigate the challenges of transitions, hardships, and adversity.

Select Key Findings

Validity and Reliability. A confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the validity of the instrument in both populations (Total N = 479), χ² [329] = 436.78, p < .001, CFI = 0.998, RMSEA = 0.026, SRMR = 0.04. All items loaded onto their respective factors > 0.55, with most > 0.75. Additionally, internal reliability was confirmed for all subscales—CV α = 0.82, MP α = 0.76, CN α = 0.77, AW α = 0.78, OP α = 0.80, AG α = 0.84, GR α = 0.77. Convergent and divergent validity were also established.

Emotional Intelligence. Results demonstrate a strong association between a higher sense of self and Emotional Intelligence scores. In the general linear model, controlling for age, sex, ethnicity, marital status, and education level, a significant regression model was found with a one-point increase in Sense of Self was associated with a 0.53 increase in Perceiving Emotion (r² = 0.44), a 0.45 increase in Use of Emotion (r² = 0.28), a 0.44 increase in Understanding Emotion (r² = 0.35), a 0.52 increase in Managing Emotion (r² = 0.37), and a 0.55 increase in Social Management (r² = 0.38).

Anxiety. Sense of Self had an inverse association with anxiety, with a -0.35 decrease in anxiety with every one-point increase in Sense of Self (r² = 0.43).

Depression. Sense of Self also had an inverse association with depression, with a -0.39 decrease with every one-point increase in Sense of Self (r² = 0.57).

Psychological Hardiness. A significant regression model was found in the general linear model, with a one-point increase in Sense of Self associated with a 0.57 increase in Positive Psychological Hardiness (r² = 0.40) and a -0.17 decrease in Negative Psychological Hardiness (r² = 0.39).

Autonomous Motivation. S2i scores had a significant relationship with autonomous motivation resulting in a 0.59 increase for every one-point increase in Sense of Self (r² = 0.38).

Self-Efficacy. A strong association model was found in the general linear model, with a one-point increase in Sense of Self associated with a 0.64 increase in self-esteem (r² = 0.57)

Self-Esteem. A significant regression model was found with a one-point increase in Sense of Self associated with a 0.45 increase in self-esteem (r² = 0.26).

Job Performance. Job performance was measured using the Individual Work Performance Questionnaire, which examined three dimensions of workplace performance—task performance, contextual performance, and counterproductive work behaviors. The S2i had a positive association with both task and contextual performance (0.50, r²= 0.35; 0.44, r² = 0.27; respectively). The study did not find a significant association between sense of self and counterproductive work behaviors.

Discussion

            Based on the key findings, Sense of Self is a critical aspect of human performance and leadership development that can potentially positively increase emotional intelligence and psychological hardiness in Airmen while also addressing the anxiety and depression epidemics the Air Force faces.

       Role Identity. The S2i is rooted in role identity theory. For example, a ball bounces back predictably when it is round and in good shape. If one side is dented or uneven, its bounce becomes unpredictable. In the same way, your sense of self helps you bounce back from challenges, adversity, and hardships stably and reliably. The more “in shape” one’s sense of self is—balanced and well-rounded—the better they can face transitions and difficulties, becoming stronger and achieving higher performance.

         Leadership Development. The S2i fosters leader development and growth from three perspectives. First, it fosters self-awareness so the leader can better understand how their perceptions, actions, etc., potentially impact their leadership. Second, as demonstrated in this research, Sense of Self is strongly associated with greater Emotional Intelligence—a key factor in the Air Force leadership development model. Third, it provides actionable steps for leader growth and connection to leader performance variables, such as communication, resilience, decision-making, and conflict management.

            Human Performance Application. The S2i, though applicable for reactive care and coaching, is primarily designed to enhance human performance. Current studies examine the relationship between Sense of Self and motivation, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. However, initial findings support a positive association with each. The bottom line is that a strong, stable sense of self empowers individuals to perform at their peak potential by minimizing the energy expended through role identity shifts and challenges. Furthermore, a strong sense of self provides the anchor to overcome and thrive in the midst of hardship and adversity.

            Precise and Tailored Feedback. The S2i was not designed solely to provide a number or data to a commander; it was designed to facilitate coaching, foster self-awareness, and promote growth through actionable application. With feedback in mind, individuals taking the S2i receive tailored feedback based on their scores to better understand their “shape” and ways to improve their stability.

Conclusion

The S2i was created to bridge the gap between the growing focus on resilience and well-being and the continued rise of negative behaviors in the workplace and daily life. While resilience is important, it alone cannot ensure well-being or long-term performance. For resilience to truly work, it must be consistent, stable, and predictable. This stability comes from our sense of self, a combination of key elements that shape our core identity and help us turn our environmental factors into effective behaviors. Developed through a research-based, iterative process, the S2i is a valid, reliable tool for measuring and understanding the sense of self, which can empower the Air Force’s leadership development program and address the mental health challenges it faces. 

References

Arenas, F., Tucker, J., Connelly, D. (2017). Transforming future Air Force leaders of tomorrow. Air & Space Power Journal (Fall) https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Volume-31_Issue-3/F-Arenas.pdf

Diagnoses of mental health disorders among active component U.S. Armed Forces, 2019-2023. (2024). Health.mil.https://www.health.mil/News/Articles/2024/12/01/MSMR-Mental-Health-Update-2024

Ebensberger, R. (2024). Air University highlight: Shaping leadership for the challenges of tomorrow. Air Education and Training Command. https://www.aetc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3814939/air-university-highlight-shaping-leadership-for-the-challenges-of-tomorrow/

Hinck, J., Watkins, W., Davis, S., Altieri, J., Cruz-Peeler, C. (2023). The legacy of LDC: Leaders thriving with trust and confidence v “just surviving” or getting fired. Wild Blue Yonder. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Wild-Blue-Yonder/Articles/Article-Display/Article/3362445/the-legacy-of-ldc-leaders-thriving-with-trust-and-confidence-v-just-surviving-o/

Roza, D. (2024). The Air Force needs to define toxic leadership, experts say. Air & Space Forces Magazine.https://www.airandspaceforces.com/air-force-toxic-leadership-definition/